Reflective Analysis

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Expansion of reflection

I chose these three blogs because they were beautifully written and they correlated with my blog entirely, but, they were mostly based on theoretically negative connotations of sprawls, with the expection of one of Khadija's post.

 

Sayyida Ali – A Journey into the Urban

http://tturbanperceptions.blogspot.com/

             Sayyida’s blog was not related to sprawls directly however it related indirectly to my blog in more ways than one. The basis of my blog was to start with background information (so that the reader can get a good foundation of what urban sprawls were and its potential) and then evolve it into a more revisionist perspective. Sayyida’s blog basically did the same within each post as she “Journeyed into the Urban” assessing and evaluating the perceptions that constitutes the urban.
            Her posts such as ‘Inner City Life and Stereotypes’, ‘Urban Poverty and Cities of Aspiration’ and ‘A Population Affected by Transit Issues’  related to my poem on ‘Life’, Increasing Violence with Increasing Urbanisation’ and ‘Mobility’ respectively.

             But what really grabbed my attention was her post on ‘San Fernando: Planning Urban Growth’ where she wrote about her observations of the city and related sprawl as a continuous trend occurring on the southern part of the island. She saw sprawls as a major constraint to the agricultural sector. This is understandable but, I believe that a country cannot focus on agriculture and providing food for the poor when they may not have a private place to take part of in their meal, or they may not have a place to store extras so that they can provide their family with food for another day. I guess as the saying goes ‘There is a time and place for everything’ I believe she was trying to convey that ‘There is a place and space for everything’.

             What I do agree with is her stance on urban planning with relation to the Housing Development Cooperation (HDC) created by Act No. 24 of 2005. The governmental agency claims to aid with housing and planning yet their works seem to hamper instead of benefit the communities and many areas of sprawls have been victim to these deeds.

 

Tammi Thompson – Urbanisation and Disparity           

http://urbanizationdisparity.blogspot.com/

Tammi’s blogs were directly connected to my theme. She focused on ‘slums’ along the southern part of this Trinidad and though she seemed neutral on the whole concept of urban sprawls she had a great historical contents with her post. This helped me greatly in realising that areas develop according to location and its past histories.

What grasped my attention with her blog was her quote from her post “Disparities in Architecture (the urban poor)” which was “Just as a skyscraper is a symbolic part of an urban space which can represent wealth and innovation, huts or built up dwellings of the urban poor also reflect symbolism, which may be that of poverty and hardship.”

To me, this was beautiful. It summed up all my perceptions of sprawls and everything I stood for in my revisionist perspective of urban sprawls.

Overall she showed that ‘slum areas’ are closely intertwined with the cities of direct production and advanced services and thus are located near them, but separately in scattered clusters. With my blog I focused on these pockets of communities from the North West to the South West of the island and I could attest to this as I observed these same processes.

 

 

Khadija Stewart – The Dark Side of Urbanisation

http://negativeurbanisation.blogspot.com/

Firstly, I love her theme and the black background definitely helped in conveying her topic. Her topics of ‘Overcrowding’, ‘Traffic Congestion’, ‘Pollution/Litter’, ‘Disparities in Development’, ‘Environmental Degradation’ and ‘Poverty’ all linked to the characteristics of urban sprawl, but what really caught my eye was her post on ‘Urban Sprawls’.

She looked at different nuclei within the city of Port-of-Spain (I am assuming she refers to Port-of-Spain as a Multiple-Nuclei urban form), and focused on how each are being affected by sprawl according to the main service performed in that area.

She was the only of the three that gave the typical adverse scholarly attributes to sprawl and then in her abstract about the topic she wrote she actually “sees nothing wrong with sprawl”. I found that very interesting as she contradicted the very theme of her blog which “focused on the negative effects of urbanisation”. It revealed that even though she researched the topic and gather all the evidence of negativity she still saw this phenomenon as a building block for development which can be improved with better implementation of laws and policies.
            After reading this, I thought to myself “Wow”. I realised that I was not the only one who saw potential in these places habitually called favelas and slums; these disregarded places of mostly lower class societies who are often forgotten by the way side on the escalator to progress and development.

Her quote from Janet Bowman was also inspiring to read - “We still object to the whole concept of waving the urban sprawl rule. We believe it serves a purpose” ~ Janet Bowman

It related to everything that I tried to portray within my blogs, especially with the last six I did.

 

References

Ali, Sayyida. "A Journey Into The Urban." A Journey into the Urban. Accessed April 11, 2013.
http://tturbanperceptions.blogspot.com/

Stewart, Khadija. "The Dark Side of Urbanisation." The Dark Side of Urbanisation. Accessed April 12, 2013.

http://negativeurbanisation.blogspot.com/

Thompson, Tammi . "Urbanization & Disparity." Urbanization & Disparity. Accessed April 10, 2013

http://urbanizationdisparity.blogspot.com/

Sustainability

When I saw this in Carapo, I had to stop and take a picture. While doing this, I actually chuckled to myself saying “the sign actually says ‘No Dumping’ and people a literally doing what they want.
Then,,,, it hit me, the residents are physically destroying their own community and many don’t even know it.
My smiling expression quickly changed into one of concern. I wondered if they understood what the repercussions of these behaviours can denote for future generations, if they could even read and interpret the sign (as many of these marginalised people maybe illiterate) or if they knew what sustainability meant.

Although throughout my blog posts I’ve seem to be the voice of the poor residing within sprawls, bring to the forefront both negative and mostly positive facets to this lifestyle. Conversely, with the topic of sustainability, I must say that most of these areas are almost as good a doomed as their living conditions do not meet the needs of the present generation without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland 1987).

However as populations have skyrocketed in recent decades, the actual rate of sprawl has slowed while urban populations have become denser. Still, real problems emerging out of the time-honoured condition of sprawl raise important questions for the nature of sustainable development. Such questions would suggest added pressure on the professionals representing the real estate market, those brokers for whom defining themselves meant aggressive efforts towards legitimization in the early- and mid- twentieth century.

Meanwhile, the category of the middle class has become in some ways a virtually all-encompassing consciousness and has remained directly tied to the ideal of consumerism within strong housing markets (Campbell and Mollica 2009). This idea has prompted anti-sprawl advocates to criticize unrestrained development and the over-consumption of resources. Though not unique to the late twentieth century, anti-sprawl campaigns during this period were particularly strong and multidimensional (Hall and Barrett 2012, 306).

 Easily accessible data such as the cost of sprawl, the visible destruction of open spaces and agricultural land, and the over-dependence on the automobile were used by such marquee anti-sprawl activists as the Sierra Club and the National Trust for Historic Preservation to prove that sprawl is a major public concern. In fact, the idea of sustainable land use previously broached by Richard Ely has been one of the key concepts uniting groups in their campaign, because it taps into the larger and even more compelling issue of global warming (Bruegmann 2005).

With increasing populations and diminishing resources, issues of ethical, conscientious development may take centre stage and force a rewrite of existing curriculums. Many great cities fail if there is unsustainability and a classic example of this is the Roman Empire. With unsustainability there is only two options ship-up (adapt) or ship-out (die) as resources degrade and competition for necessities increase. Sprawls are not environmentally sound and these areas would not thrive into the future, however if these is a possibility where sprawls continue to spread, they would just evolve with time as they consume new areas and over-exploit these newly found resources.

References

Bruegmann, Robert. 2005. Sprawl: a compact history. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Brundtland, Gro Harlem. 1987. Our common future. Melbourne: Oxford University Press

Campbell, Tom, and David Mollica. 2009. Sustainability. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate

Hall, T. and H. Barrett. 2012. Urban Geography. 4th ed. London/ New York: Routledge.

Mobility

    Is the government of Trinidad and Tobago making provisions for various forms of mobility?    

            Planning for the minority is a huge factor in the development of cities because as one plans for the minority the majority actually benefits. Without this, developments may not be sustainable and communities try to create and obtain the resources needed on their own leading to possible degradation and sprawl.

These pictures are examples of the lack of planning in infrastructure with relation to transportation and mobility.

  1) No Sidewalks on one side        2) No bicycle lanes          3) No sidewalks on either side

 

The video furthermore seeks to explain how important mobility within cities is and also compare transport and mobility between the Global North and Global South while including reflection on its impact on urban sprawls.

Enjoy!!! ^_^

 

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References

Hall, T. and H. Barrett. 2012. Urban Geography. 4th ed. London/ New York: Routledge.

Pacione, Michael. 2005. Urban geography: A Global Perspective. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.

The Real Experience of the City

Picture voices

This entry is focused on experiencing urban life.

The emotional relationships between people and place are an important dimension of everyday life especially when experiencing the city (Hall and Barrett 2012, 235) but there is often ambiguity with how cities are sold and how it is actually experienced with relation to social hierarchy.

             Persons of high economic status have the economic and social power to modify any experience of places because they can afford the amenities to do so.
             However imagine the impression of these places on a refugee that has just fled their home in search of a better life in Trinidad. Fundamentally, people move in the expectation of achieving a superior living environment. Refugees may be attracted to the picturesque representations and illustrations of the city but would they have the same opportunities when citizens of lower classes themselves are often ignored? Would they be allowed the right to housing, experience welcoming communities and have access to governmental assistance?
             What about the poor, are they accepted into the wider community, are they treated with a sense of equality by the government and given the same opportunities or are they constantly marginalised due to their status and the area in which they reside?
              Yet these people survive, day by day, existing on whatever resources they have and ‘sweet nothings’ from the government and governmental agencies.

 

               In order to understand the truth of the city we need to acknowledge the ‘reality’ of the city as a concrete construction (thing) and as an abstract representation (idea), and examine how each influences the form of the other. For the great majority of the global urban population, the idea of a virtual city collides with the reality of everyday life (Pacione 2005, 28).

The following are photos of the unheard voices of persons living in sprawls and what is never seen in advertisements; they are the epitome of paradigms of ambiguity of place and space.

Expectation - a mental image of something expected, often compared to its reality (Oxford University Press 2013).

Reality – something that has real existence and must be dealt with in real life (Oxford University Press 2013).

 

Scenic Guest Houses

Reality Picture - Taken in Maraval (All are not allowed)

Accommodating Groceries

Reality Picture - Taken in Malabar (Grocery closed at 4pm)

Eradicating Poverty

Reality Picture - Taken in San Fernando (Poverty is not easily eradicated)

 

Job opportunities

 Reality Picture - Taken in Carapo (Closed and degraded factories and warehouses - a regular sight)

Corner stalls

 Reality Picture - Taken in Carapo (Typical fruit stand with few fruits)

Communities

 Reality Picture - Taken in La Horquetta (Welcoming community?)

Government homes

Reality Picture - Taken in Malabar (Imcompleted government houses)

Are your perceptions of the environment distorted?

Are the rhythms of reality, portrayed by many websites and brochures, truly reflected?

Everyday life centre around city aspects such as areas with attractive views and opportunities,

But are they for everyone – the upper class, middle class and persons stricken by poverty?

Ambidextrous governments masking tourist experiences using one hand to improve well-known areas that are customarily visited,

While the other hand is dipping into the funds that should be used to encourage sustainable occurrences.

Is this what Edward Relph (1976) meant when he said that landscapes should not be upgraded/globalised due to the deep emotional relationships between people and place?

I think not, yes we should not alter our landscapes but we should preserve it with pride and not let it erode or degrade.

 

However, as of recent time, places are continuously being created with social class in mind,

So who is really going the ‘experiencing the city’ you ask? Neither the refugee nor the poor child!

All these contradictory tendencies blur my judgement no more,

With the reality of poverty and marginalisation clearer in my thoughts than ever before.

To hell with these lies, and fictitious anecdotes of opportunity within the city!

These beliefs are the reason why sprawl exist, often increasing unsustainable activity.

Governments should not hide what the island is plagued by; fixing these problems should be of first priority.

Until a state of equilibrium is reached between all of the citizens, including you and me.

 

 

Now do not think the entire country is this way, many areas outside of the CBD a quite like the pictures of expectation, however I would not be misled anymore, I now know the difference in experiences of the city with relation to social hierarchy.




References

Hall, T. and H. Barrett. 2012. Urban Geography. 4th ed. London/ New York: Routledge.
 

Oxford University Press. 2013. "Definition of expectation in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World .   .                English)." Oxford Dictionaries Online. Accessed March 28, 2013. .                                  . .  .              http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/expectation


Oxford University Press. 2013. "Definition of expectation in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World.                 English)." Oxford Dictionaries Online. Accessed March 28, 2013. .                http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/reality
 

Pacione, Michael. 2005. Urban geography: A Global Perspective. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.

Images of Sprawl: Pro - and Anti-urban Myths

Beatuy is in the eye of the beholder...

 

            Urban geographers employed perceptive mapping techniques to examine a host of issues, including migration, consumer behaviour, residential mobility, residential preferences, perceived neighbourhood areas and images of the city (Pacione 2005, 35).

The behavioural approach sought to overcome the shortcomings of spatial analysis, by highlighting the role of reasoning and decision-making processes in mediating the relationship between the urban environment and people’s spatial behaviour in which these images are created by.

           Though images influence one’s perception of a place, experiences bestows one with the knowledge and understanding of cities.
Each image may give a different story to the viewer and each experience varies according to the person.

 

 

 

A radical change in urban imagery?

This refers to our images of the city and how these affect our behaviour and lifestyle in the postmodern city.

Hence I would be using a traditional concept of the Pro- and Anti-Urban Framework but putting a post-modern twist to it.

 

                                 Laventille

Chaotic or Civilised?
Laventille maybe notoriously know for crime and violence however for the persons living within this sprawl, it is a places of solid community networks and social strongholds.

So I ask again, chaotic or civilised?

 

 
                                                                                                                         Carapo

Alienating or Romantic?

These single family households are common to sprawls however is it a form of isolation or is this the post-modern way of recreating a bonding family unit where basic necessities must be shared in order to survive.

So I ask again, alienating or romantic?

 

 

                            Caroni

 
Dangerous or Exciting?

Often due to the lack of fiscal input to the economy sprawling area are subject to poor services and degraded infrastructure, however coming home from a stressful day at school and having to ‘walk the plank’ to get inside your yard can be quite electrifying or even thrilling don’t you think?

So I ask again, dangerous or exciting?

                                                                                                                     Carapo

                                                                          

Sprawling or Diverse?

Many persons seek refuge on the periphery of CBD due to the ease of access to resources and the belief of a better standard of living. These areas can be of heterogeneous diversity where unique behaviours, such as hanging one’s clothes out on a line, create new dimensions and visual interest to these zones.

So I ask again, sprawling or diverse?

 

 

                             Arima

Polluting or Liberating?

Pollution is consider as contamination of the land or natural environment thereby reducing aesthetic value however isn’t the act of getting rid of waste a form of freedom, emancipating oneself from reminders of the past and moving forward by obtaining new items?

So I ask again, pollution or liberation?

 

 

                                                                                                                  Malabar

Fragmentation or Cultural?

Graffiti is somewhat consider a way of self-expression. This artistic aspect reminds by-passers of the close community cliques that belong to these neighbourhoods that maybe formed due to social similarity.

So I ask again, fragmentation or cultural?

These examples highlight the way in which the managing of urban imagery can shift with the context within which representations are examined (Hall and Barrett 2012, 219).
 

Often one's knowledge of the world is influenced by how it is represented by the media, films and conversations.

Thus it can be assumed that people's interpretations of cities are mostly subjective and though images are often inundated with ambiguity. This post seeks to evoke many stimulating and provocative perceptions of sprawls located outside of these cities and relate them to behaviour to determine if these images can be classed as pro or anti-urban.

Go through each one again, evaluate the pictures.

What do you really think?

Do the pro- and or anti-urban categories match the images?

References

Hall, T. and H. Barrett. 2012. Urban Geography. 4th ed. London/ New York: Routledge.

Pacione, Michael. 2005. Urban geography: A Global Perspective. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.

LIFE...

Looking at the lifestyle of an urban dweller.

Driving through Lavantille and Beetham very quickly, I saw a familiar face; it was one of my schoolmate's sisters on her way home from work. I called her name and then came out the car to greet her, as I did this she proceeded to ask me what I was doing here. It was then I decided to interview her and ask her about the community she called home. Her raw emotions and frank answers truly made this unscripted interview worth-while, so much so that I decided to create a poem on the entire account with personal and academic reflections included.

This is more of a personal approach of what I have gathered from an interview of a Beetham woman on 10^th March 2013.

It is an atypical view point from a person actually living in a sprawl and it highlights antithetical concepts of sprawl between urban philosophers and residence.

 

The poem is segregated into five different aspects for easier interpretation of the main elements relating to sprawls and urban geography.

 

                                                   Buju Banton - Untold Stories 2009

 

 

HISTORICAL – “Disliked from the Beginning”
Sprawl: influencing this contemporary world in every aspect, indirectly or directly,

It affects our everyday life, where we live and how we commute daily.

Since the 19^th century it is fast engulfing many developed and selected developing countries,

And with so many literatures regarding sprawl, this phenomena is truly written in antiquity¹. 

 Some may run away from the urban to live in a more elite or a more rural society,

Depending on preferences and who that person might be.

But with countless expansions of urban spaces at  of the cities,

It is almost inevitable for encroachment² of the urban to not follow me

 Historically and more so in the environs of today,

The urban is seen as more superior than the rural in every way.

Like with most things, exploitation is inescapable when too much is occurring,
Sprawls, persisting in two forms; ‘around the rims of the CBD³’ and ‘within the suburban areas’ - it seems to be never ceasing.
The first characterised by informal patterns of land use, lacking proper infrastructure, public facilities and basic services⁴,
The other by residential zones for the upper income groups and high-valued commercial complexes⁴

 

SOCIO-ECONOMIC – “Money Does Matter”

Alluring for me, I live close to my work with easy access to transport into P.O.S or in ‘town'⁵,

To fulfil my dreams of economic advancement but I am constrained by my poor excuse of a financial income.

However, there are areas where the hierarchy of the elites rule structural zones of anti-anarchy,

But who would want to live in these monotonous modified prisons called ‘gated communities’?

They are just forms of fortress architecture, exacerbating feelings of fragmentation and exclusion⁶,

And boring defensive constructions made in response to deviant activities within the conurbation⁶.

 

Mostly heard of in books, but, does my financial status actually bond me legally to the place where I reside?

Do I feel a sense of place, like Doreen Massey (1994)⁷ explained, because I am just like my neighbour and her child?

Searching for better opportunities and a space to rest a weary head,

But unfortunately I had to witness my son and my neighbour’s husband shot dead.

Gang violence, guns and crimes - they are all over the country plaguing this ‘land of oil and music, this magnificent island’ we once loved,

Yet the media chooses to emphasise only on one ethnic race because the poor man is not considered to be a part of this island explained above.

 

 CULTURAL – “Misunderstood by Other Social Classes”

Excessive reviews from foreign and alien eyes looking in,

Confusion, misperception, perplexity, and uncertainty - of course you would not understand! Go write about the area where you live.

Then you compile what you think you know, into your texts about our community and all the affiliations of negativity,

For our children to use in school, I say, ‘Get rid of these negative connotations in the dustbins of history!’

Now it is my turn, to explain to the wider populace the area and the community in which we reside,

So that our cultures and attitudes are misunderstood and questioned no more and we can stop being victimised.

                                                Prophet Benjamin - Usual Suspect 2008

 

 

Foolish concepts enhance the masses to create hierarchical societal categories and promote social stratification,

I mean, our social classes are so segregated; it’s like the citizens of Norway⁸ and Zimbabwe⁹ inhabiting the same island.

‘Favelas worlds’ they call us, no remorse, and their words so sharp they cut like a knife, 

While we try to live harmoniously with synchronised footsteps that strut to the rhythmic beat of life.

Imagine being considered as negative externalities of improper structural and land-use decisions,

No more, I am fed up of these people looking down on our artistic environs.

 

 

POLITICAL – “Do governments care about the society or the dollar?”

United we control our street, our sidewalks and our cities.

So why should we be intimidated or pressured by the oppressor or these managerial bullies.

Our life does not march to the ticking clock of urban encroachment and possible gentrification,

‘Hell No!” I will stand and fight for my place, fight for my space like Dr. Wayne Kublalsingh in the Point Fortin Highway envision.

They are constantly opening Pandora’s Box to a society of more hatred and depression due to displacements,

But no, blame gentrification on us because of our culture, speech, outfits and hairstyles. We are the ‘usual suspects’ for most of the infringements.
                                                    http://www.writespirit.net/inspirational-talks/political/martin-luther-king-talks/

                                                                                       
                     
                                                                                        Clearing of land in Lavantille, P.O.S.  

Lawfully under the Ministry of Housing, the HDC¹⁰ wants to implement New Urbanism¹¹,

The capitalist also wants to relocate me so that he can build a new area of strictly commercialism¹²

So where do I go, where would I live, I cannot even fathom why the government would support this,
It is literally the forced displacement of their citizens to create this new time-space fabric^13.     

It seems like apparently urban sprawl involving the poor resembles pollution of the land,

But the reality is that it occurs because authorities pay little attention to our degraded services and ignores the poor man.

 

ENVIRONMENTAL – “How long can this lifestyle last?”

Logically thinking, pattern of such sprawls are identified by visual interpretation methods,

So can’t the relative authorities use their comparative knowledge to reduce the vast killing of my brothers?

Is negativity written in the character coding of this cities’ system?

Is pollution, crime and overexploitation made to flow in arteries and veins of this location?

Yes, typically developing countries are faced with unprecedented population growths that threaten vast natural resources.

But I believe with proper implementation of ‘bottom-up planning’¹⁴, it would definitely silence the negative voices.

                                                                                        Picture of a degraded house in Beetham

Youths growing up here every day, elders living here until placed in the cemetery,

With conditions so bad, imagine the scent of our community’s drains would definitely kill a mine canary.

So many persons searching for the same goal of financial success,

Causing overpopulation and causing the land on which we live to succumb to stress.
 

Yet I would not migrate nor be forced to move from where I live for another place in the world,

“I born and grow up here, I love my safety net of a community, who de hell them telling to go!”

 

"NAH LEAVING, IS HERE THEY CONCEIVE ME, IS HERE AH GO DEAD!!"

                                       Denise Plummer - Nah Leaving 2001

 

 Shamefully walking on 10^th Street, Beetham Gardens to my house every evening after work,

That’s what they may think, but my head is held high, my shoulders back, impressing the eyes that may often lurk.

But, where did the negative perceptions originate from in the first place, are we even considered superior to dirt?

Who is teaching our teachers, or leading or leaders to think we are of no self-worth?

Is this LIFE? Am I subjected to live in an area mocked by discrimination and always represented by an undesirable tone?

Call it what you what, this is my community, my society, this is my home…

  

Footnotes:

1 – Antiquity – older times, in the past

2 – Encroachment – is something that infringes and has the ability to influence whatever it encounters.

3 – CBD- Central Business District – Contains the major shops and offices; it is the centre for commerce and entertainment and the focus for transport route.

5 – Town – Also known as Port-of-Spain/ a Trinidadian jargon for the capital of the country.

8 – Norway – The most developed country in the world 2009 – till.

9 – Zimbabwe – One of the least developed countries in the world.

10 – HDC – The Trinidad and Tobago Housing Development Corporation (HDC) is an Agency of the Ministry of Housing, Land and Marine Affairs and was created by Act No. 24 of 2005.

11 – New Urbanism – New Urbanism also promotes a return to the traditional town planning and is a reaction to the sprawling of cities.

12 – Commercialism – the application of manufacturing and consumption towards personal usage and free enterprise geared toward generating profit.

14 – Bottom up planning – Planning down mostly by the persons of  a community rather than strictly governmental personel. 

 

References

Dear, Michael and Steven Flusty. 1998. “Postmodern Urbanism” Vol. 88, No. 1. USA & UK -  (13)

Johnson, Amanda. (Resident of Beetham Gardens, Beethams). 2013. Interviewed by author. March 10. Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.

Hall, T. and H. Barrett. 2012. Urban Geography. 4th ed. London/ New York: Routledge. - (6 & 14)

Massey, Doreen. 1994. Global sense of place: From Space, Place and Gender. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (7)

"Ministry of Housing and The Environment." Ministry of Housing and The Environment. Accessed March 24, 2013.                       http://www.mphe.gov.tt/about-us-hdc.html. (10)

UN Habitat. 2010 "State of the World's Cities 2010/2011; Bridiging the Urban Divide." UN Habitat.Accessed March 14, 2013. www.unhabitat.org/documents/SOWC10/R4.pdf. (4)

Waugh, David. 1995. Geography: An Integrated Approach. 2nd ed. London:  Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. (3)